Thursday, May 21, 2020
How to Prove an Argument Invalid by a Counterexample
An argument is invalid if the conclusion doesnt follow necessarily from the premises. Whether or not the premises are actually true is irrelevant. So is whether or not the conclusion is true. The only question that matters is this: Is it possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false? If this is possible, then the argument is invalid. Proving Invalidity The counterexample method is a powerful way of exposing what is wrong with an argument that is invalid. If we want to proceed methodically, there are two steps: 1) Isolate the argument form; 2) Construct an argument with the same form that is obviously invalid. This is the counterexample. Lets take an example of a bad argument. Some New Yorkers are rude.Some New Yorkers are artists.Therefore Some artists are rude. Step 1: Isolate the Argument Form This simply means replacing the key terms with letters, making sure that we do this in a consistent way. If we do this we get: Some N are RSome N are ATherefore some A are R Step 2: Create the counterexample For instance: Some animals are fish.Some animals are birds.Therefore some fish are birds This is what is called a substitution instance of the argument form laid out in Step 1. There is an infinite number of these that one could dream up. Every one of them will be invalid since the argument form is invalid. But for a counterexample to be effective, the invalidity must shine forth. That is, the truth of the premises and the falsity of the conclusion must be beyond question. Consider this substitution instance: Some men are politiciansSome men are Olympic championsTherefore some politicians are Olympic champions. The weakness of this attempted counterexample is that the conclusion isnt obviously false. It may be false right now, but one can easily imagine an Olympic champion going into politics. Isolating the argument form is like boiling an argument down to its bare bones--its logical form. When we did this above, we replaced specific terms like New Yorker with letters. Sometimes, though, the argument is revealed by using letters to replace whole sentences or sentence-like phrases. Consider this argument, for instance: If it rains on election day the Democrats will win.It wont rain on election day.Therefore the Democrats wont win. This is a perfect example of a fallacy known as affirming the antecedent. Reducing the argument to its argument form, we get: If R then DNot RTherefore not D Here, the letters dont stand for descriptive words like rude or artist. Instead, they stand for an expression like, the Democrats will win and it will rain on election day. These expressions can themselves be either true or false. But the basic method is the same. We show the argument s invalid by coming up with a substitution instance where the premises are obviously true and the conclusion is obviously false. For instance: If Obama is older than 90, then hes older than 9.Obama is not older than 90.Therefore Obama is not older than 9. The counterexample method is effective at exposing the invalidity of deductive arguments. It doesnt really work on inductive arguments since, strictly speaking, these are always invalid.
Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Essay about Ionic Reactions - 773 Words
Ionic Reactions Abstract This experiment is designed to study the nature of ionic reactions, and write net ionic equations for precipitation reactions, as well as to identify spectator ions, perception reactions and solubility of different compounds. Experiment and Observations In this experiment I was using a 96-well plate to add two drops of the following solutions into seven wells in rows A through E: cobalt (II) nitrate, copper (II) nitrate, iron (III) nitrate, barium nitrate, and nickel (II) nitrate. Afterward, two drops of each of sodium phosphate, sodium iodide, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide were added to the five vertical wells under columns†¦show more content†¦This was expected because the solubility rules stated that these were all insoluble substances. I was careful to add exactly two drops of each into each well, as to keep my experimental error to a minimum. Questions: A. Compare your results with the solubility rules and/or solubility table in your chemistry text. B. Do your results agree with your expectations from the solubility rules/table? Yes, my results did agree with my expectations from the basic solubility rules. C. Which anions generally form precipitates? What are exceptions? Most hydroxides, sulfides, carbonates and phosphates form precipitates. Alkali metals, barium, silver nitrate, silver nitrite and silver perchlorate are some exceptions. D. Which anions generally do not form precipitates? What are the exceptions? All nitrate salts, alkali metals, ammonium salts, sulfates, acetates, and halides do not form precipitates. Calcium sulfate, strontium sulfate, barium sulfate, lead (II) ions, silver halide, lead (II) halide and mercury (I) ions are some exceptions. E. Which cations generally do not form precipitates? 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Consumer Durable Insustry Free Essays
Contents The impact of advertisement on the buying behavior with reference to the consumer durables 1. Introduction 2. Theoritical background of the study 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Consumer Durable Insustry or any similar topic only for you Order Now Advertising and advertisements 2. Advertisers 3. Advertising agencies 4. Support organization 5. Media 6. Consumers 7. Advertising as marketing tool 8. Role of advertising in modern business world 1. Industry background 1. Refrigerator industry 1. Design of the study 1. Statement of the problem 2. Need for the study 3. Operational definitions of the study 1. Sources of the data 1. Data collection instrument 2. Data processing and analysis . Outcome of the study 2. Analysis and interpretation 3. Conclusion Abstract : Theses The consumer durable industry in the past few years has seen tremendous growth. Advancements in the technology, government support and increased level of interest among the private players into the industry has given rise to the healthy competition between the various brands. Different companies are using different advertisement strategies for building and managing of brands. Advertising in electronic media and newspapers are key advertising areas in designing the advertising strategy. This study was carried out to identify the advertising strategies of different companies and to know the impact of advertisements on building and managing of brands in consumer durable industry. As there are many products that come under consumer durables, it is necessary to choose one product among them in order for market research. Hence this study was done in consumer durable industry in general and refrigerators in particular. This was research also done to identify the major influence of advertising in buying the favorite brand and to identify the impact of electronic media advertising on purchase decision. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the consumer responses on their awareness about different refrigerator brands, their media of information and impact of advertisement on their purchase decision. Three popular brands were mainly identified after conducting interviews with the consumers and these brands were used in the questionnaire for evoking the responses of the consumers. Random sampling was used to select the sample unit. The sample size was limited to 120 numbers selected from different source. The data collection involved taking responses from different people like, students, businessmen, housewives, executives etc also they belonged to different age groups and income groups. Tags: Impact of advertising on consumer buying behavior, Advertising and buying behavior, Impact of advertising in the modern business world More abstract from The impact of advertisement on the buying behavior with reference to the consumer durables [†¦ ] The aim of the study is to find out how effective advertisements are in making a consumer prefer a particular brand in the consumer durable industry. To find out the consumer reactions to advertisements and to the hypothesis, that â€Å"Advertisements in the TV and Print media has a significant impact on Consumers buying behavior with reference to consumer durables†, had to be tested. The other objectives were to verify brand recall and to generate advertising strategies for the companies. This study was explorative in design as it deals with consumer perception about advertisements and their effects on brand recall. [†¦ ] [†¦ ] OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Primary Objective: ? To understand the impact of advertisements on the Buying behavior of the consumers. To study the advertisements of the respondent companies, with reference to refrigerator. Secondary Objectives: ? To verify recall of advertisements/brands ? To analyze the justification of advertising expenditure. NEED FOR THE STUDY Gaining an understanding about the impact of advertisements on consumer’s buying behavior. REVIEW IF LITERATURE Before starti ng this study various literatures were reviewed to find out the gap that could exist between previous study and the present one. [†¦ ] [†¦ ] This shows that advertisements in magazines get the full attention of its readers. Second, magazine advertisements are good in quality in terms of printing and color. Magazines are usually printed on the good paper that makes for an excellent reproduction of art and color work. TELEVISION ADVERTISING Though the technological breakthroughs have changed the advertising media, T. V . remains to be the largest entertaining media. Television advertising, which began only in1976, takes almost a third of that share, with the press getting around sixty percent. [†¦ ] [†¦ ] There are advertisements that are persuasive only with no fact and figure. There are advertisements that are informative only, but not appealing much. Mostly advertisements should fall between these two extremes. Advertisements for specialties like medicine s might be totally informative persuasive advertisements generally put on TV. Informative advertisements appear in magazines and weekend supplements of newspaper. They are put in more durable media. Some informative advertisements create a mood favorable towards a product. One more version of informative advertisements, is to present it as editorial matter, in distinguishable from the real editorial matter. [†¦ ] [†¦ Different people react to different advertisements in various ways at different times. Today, we are exposed to a large number of commercial messages than at any time in the past. Not only has the quantity of advertisements increased, even the quality of advertisements has improved very considerably over the past couple of years. Advertising as Marketing Tool Advertising is the com munication link between the sellers and the buyer or the consumer. It does not simply provide information about the products and services, but also attempts at influencing people to action by on overt appeal to reason or emotion. [†¦ ] How to cite Consumer Durable Insustry, Papers
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